Isotopes of a given element have the same number of electrons, but their atomic mass and nuclear spin differ through the number of neutrons. The trivial and prominent effect on isotope exchange is the ...

The discovery of stable ''isotopes" began with J. J. Thomson's identification of neon-22 in 1912 (Bievre et al., 1984). More than 90 naturally occurring elements have been identified on the earth; ...